Syllabus of lectures - General Medicine, Academic year 2026/2027

1.) September 21, 2026.  Introduction to the study of Immunology. Antigen.

Assoc. prof. Ivana Shawkatová, MSc., PhD.   (in-person lecture)                                                                   

-     Introduction to the study of immunology, milestones of immunology

-     The immune system, its characteristics and importance in the clinical praxis

-     Primary and secondary lymphoid organs

-     Innate and adaptive immunity, immune cells and humoral factors - an overview

-     Antigen, its characteristics and properties

-     Active and passive immunity

2.) September 28, 2026.  B cells. Structure and function of antibodies. Monoclonal antibodies.

Assoc. prof. Vladimíra Ďurmanová, RNDr., PhD.  (available online from September 22, 2026)      

-     B cells, antibody-producing plasma cells

-     Immunoglobulins, their structure, classification and function

-     Biological properties of immunoglobulins

-     Primary and secondary immune responses

-     Polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies. Hybridomas 

-     Monoclonal antibodies in the diagnostics and therapy

3.) October 5, 2026.  The complement system.

Assoc. prof. Vladimíra Ďurmanová, RNDr., PhD.   (available online from September 29, 2026)

-    Complement system, characteristics, nomenclature

-    Classical, alternative, and lectin pathways of activation

-     Vasoactive and chemotactic factors

-     Biological significance of the complement system

-     Receptors, regulatory proteins

-     Complement deficiencies - manifestations, diagnostics

4.) October 12, 2026.  Phagocytosis. Pattern recognition receptors and pathogen-associated molecular patterns. Alarmins. Inflammation.

Assoc. prof. Michal Pastorek, MSc., PhD.   (available online from October 6, 2026)                         

-     Professional phagocytes, process of phagocytosis

-     Oxygen-dependent microbicidal mechanisms

-     Nitrogen-dependent microbicidal mechanisms

-     Bactericidal proteins and peptides, NETs

-     Infectious and non-infectious inflammation

-     Pattern recognition receptors

-     Pathogen-associated molecular patterns and damage-associated molecular patterns

-     Molecular and cellular basis of inflammation, resolution of inflammation, acute phase proteins

5.) October 19, 2026.  T cells, unconventional lymphocytes.

Prof. Richard Imrich, MD, DrSc.   (available online from October 13, 2026)                                                                       

-     T cells, their origin, receptors, and subsets

-     Polarization of helper T cells, their characteristics

-     Cytotoxic T cells

-     Memory T cells

-     Clinical significance of T cells

-     Unconventional lymphocytes - NK, NKT, MAIT, and ILC cells, their characteristics and function           

6.) October 26, 2026.  The major histocompatibility complex in man. Membrane molecules of cells of the immune system. Transplantation immunology.

Assoc. prof. Ivana Shawkatová, MSc., PhD.   (available online from October 20, 2026)

-     Genomic organisation of the HLA complex, inheritance

-     HLA-molecules, biochemical structure, distribution

-     Endogenous and exogenous pathways of antigen presentation

-     Biological significance of HLA molecules

-     The HLA-complex in organ and tissue transplantations

-     Membrane antigens, their characteristics, nomenclature and function

7.) November 2, 2026.  Cytokines of innate and adaptive immunity. Infectious and non-infectious inflammation. SIRS, sepsis, septic shock.

Assoc. prof. Michal Pastorek, MSc., PhD.      (available online from October 27, 2026)                         

-     General properties of cytokines

-     Cytokines that mediate innate and adaptive immunity

-     Pro-inflammatory, anti-inflammatory and regulatory cytokines

-     Local inflammation, SIRS, sepsis, septic shock

-     SIRS versus polymicrobial sepsis

-     New definition of sepsis

-     Cytokines that stimulate haematopoiesis

-     Chemokines

8.) November 9, 2026.  Hypersensitivity reactions type I.

Assoc. prof. Ivana Shawkatová, MSc., PhD.   (available online from November 3, 2026)                        

-     Hypersensitivity reactions - classification, characteristics 

-     Hypersensitivity reactions type I - characteristics, immunopathogenesis

-     Mediators of allergic reaction

-     Allergens. Clinical symptomatology of allergy

-     Anaphylactic shock - clinical manifestations, diagnosis, management

-     Therapy and prevention of allergy

9.) November 16, 2026.  Hypersensitivity reactions types II - V.

Assoc. prof. Michal Pastorek, MSc., PhD.     (available online from November 4, 2026)                        

-     Type II hypersensitivity reactions. Drug hypersensitivity

-     ABO and Rh system incompatibility

-     Type III hypersensitivity reactions. Immune complexes and diseases

-     Local Arthus reaction, serum sickness - immunopathogenesis, symptoms and therapy

-     Type IV hypersensitivity reactions. Cell-mediated hypersensitivity, contact dermatitis, photo-allergic dermatitis, ...

-     Type V hypersensitivity reactions. Myasthenia gravis and Graves´ disease - immunopathogenesis and clinical symptomatology

10.) November 23, 2026.  Immune tolerance. Autoimmunity. Autoinflammatory diseases.

Prof. Richard Imrich, MD, DrSc.   (available online from November 10, 2026)                                                                         

-     Dominant and recessive tolerance. Breakdown of tolerance

-     Breakdown of immune tolerance - hypothesis

-     Pathogenic mechanisms for the development of autoimmune processes

-     Risk factors for the development of autoimmune processes

-     Organ-specific and systemic autoimmune diseases - pathogenesis, immunotherapy

-     Autoinflammatory diseases, mechanisms of their development, clinical manifestations and treatment

11.) November 30, 2026.  Inborn errors of immunity.

Juraj Javor, MD, PhD.   (available online from November 13, 2026)

-     Immunodeficiencies – characteristics, clinical manifestations, and classification

-     Inborn errors of immunity (primary immunodeficiencies) - characteristics, classification

-     Deficiencies affecting cellular and humoral immunity (combined immunodeficicencies)

-     Predominantly antibody deficiencies

-     Defects in intrinsic and innate immunity

-     Deficiencies of complement and phagocytosis

-     Fundamentals of the diagnosis and treatment of inborn errors of immunity

12.) December 7, 2026.  Secondary immunodeficiencies. HIV and AIDS.

Juraj Javor, MD, PhD.   (available online from November 13, 2026)

-     Secondary (aquired) immunodeficiencies - characteristics, common causes

-     Immunity and ageing, immunosenescence

-     HIV - types, genes, structure, replication cycle, routes of transmission

-     Interaction of HIV with cells of the immune system

-     Stages of HIV infection - clinical manifestation, AIDS

-     Prevention, therapy and diagnosis of HIV infection

11.) December 14, 2026.  Immunisation and vaccination. Immune mechanisms and their application in clinical practice. Tumor immunity.

Prof. Richard Imrich, MD, DrSc.   (available online from November 17, 2026)                                                                   

-     Active and passive immunisation. Types of vaccines

-     Immune mechanisms in cardiovascular and metabolic diseases

-     Immune mechanisms in CNS and neuroinflammation

-     Mechanisms of malignant transformation of cells in solid tumors and hematological malignancies

-     Effector immune mechanisms against tumors

-     Escape of tumor cells from immune surveillance mechanisms. Metastatic processes

-     Immunotherapy of tumors

Bratislava, September 4, 2026                                              

          Prof. Richard Imrich, MD, DrSc.

          Head of the department

Lecture No. 1 is held on Monday from 16:30 to 19:20 on Moskovska street 2, room M6. The following lectures will be available online on MSTeams as video presentations. Online consulation with the lecturer will be available during the lectures.

Syllabus of practical classes - General Medicine, Academic year 2026/2027

1. Practical class (28.09. – 02.10. 2026)  

Serologic Reactions I. Classical methods based on antibody – antigen interactions

·        Agglutination

·        Precipitation

·        Radial immunodiffusion and other immunodiffusion techniques

·        Turbidimetry, nephelometry

·        Immunoelectrophoresis

·        Case report

Practical experiments:

-        Evaluation of antibodies against Treponema pallidum by passive haemagglutination

2. Practical class (05.10. – 09.10. 2026)

Prerequisite for the practical class - test from Lecture 2

Serologic Reactions II. Progressive methods based on antibody – antigen interactions.

·        Enzyme immunoassays

·        Radioimmunoassays

·        Immunofluorescence

·        Immunochromatography

·        Immunoblotting

·        Chemiluminiscence immunoassays

·        Case report

Practical experiments:

-         ELISA techniques and their modifications, HCG test, detection of antibodies to Helicobacter pylori and SARS-CoV-2

3. Practical class (12.10. – 16.10. 2026)  

Prerequisite for the practical class - test from Lecture 3

Evaluation of components of innate humoral immunity

·        Total complement activity assays (CH50, AH50)

·        Evaluation of complement components (RID, turbidimetry and nephelometry, ELISA)

·        Determination of acute phase proteins

.        CRP determination

.        Case report

Practical experiments:

-         CRP-determination from capillary blood by the means of reflectometry (NycoCard^®)

4. Practical class (19.10. – 23.10. 2026)  

Prerequisite for the practical class - test from Lecture 4

Evaluation of components of innate cellular immunity

·        Isolation of leukocytes from peripheral blood, counting of neutrophils

·        Functional analysis of neutrophils

·        Chemotactic activity

·        Phagocytic activity and phagocytic index

·        Microbicidal activity

·        Evaluation of metabolic activation (NBT test, DHR assay)

·        Case report

Practical experiments:

-         Evaluation of phagocytic activity, phagocytic index and candidacidal activity        

 ·         CREDIT TEST I

5. Practical class (26.10. – 30.10. 2026)

Prerequisite for the practical class - test from Lecture 5

Evaluation of components of adaptive humoral and cellular immunity

·        Isolation of lymphocytes

·        Separation of T cell subpopulations

·        Evaluation of the number of T and B cells (flow cytometry)

·        Evaluation of the function of T and B cells (lymphocyte transformation test, evaluation of antibodies against vaccine antigens)          

·        Immunoskin tests

·        Case report

Practical experiments:

-         Isolation of lymphocytes from peripheral blood using Ficoll-Hypaque

6. Practical class (02.11. – 06.11. 2026)

Prerequisite for the practical class - test from Lecture 6

Laboratory methods used in transplantation immunology – HLA-typing

·        HLA-typing by serologic methods: microlymphocytotoxicity assay

·        HLA-typing by DNA-based methods: PCR–SSP, sequencing, etc.

·        Detection of donor-specific antibodies

Practical experiments:

-        Video explaining DNA-based HLA-typing

-        Interpretation of the results of HLA-typing by PCR-SSP

7. Practical class (09.11. – 13.11. 2026)

Prerequisites for the practical class - tests from Lectures 8 and 9

In vivo and in vitro tests used in the diagnostics of allergies

·        Allergy: atopy and anaphylaxis, clinical symptomatology. Anaphylactic shock – symptomatology and therapy

.        Family and personal history, indoor and outdoor allergens  

·        Skin tests: prick test, scarification test, intradermal skin test, epicutaneous (patch) test

 .       Determination of total and allergen–specific IgE levels        

.        Basophil-activation tests

·        Case report

Demonstration:

-         Test for measurement of IgE levels

-         Epinephrin (adrenaline) autoinjector

8. Practical class (16.11. – 20.11. 2026)

Simulation

9. Practical class (23.11. – 27.11. 2026)

Prerequisites for the practical class - tests from Lectures 10, 11 and 12

Laboratory methods used in the diagnostics of autoimmune disorders and immunodeficiencies. Diagnosis of HIV infection.

.        Determination of acute phase proteins, levels of immunoglobulins, total complement levels, C3, C4 complement levels, CD4/CD8 ratio

·        Detection of autoantibodies

·        Determination of circulating immune complexes

·        Laboratory diagnosis of HIV infection

·        Case report

Laboratory assessment of the immune status - overview

·        Evaluation of innate and acquired immunity – summary of methods

·        Immunodiagnostics of tumors

Practical experiments:

-        Rheumatoid factor determination by passive agglutination 

·         CREDIT TEST II

Practical classes are held at Moskovská street 2, room 106.

Zuzana Párnická, MD, PhD.                                           Prof. Richard Imrich, MD, DrSc.

Charged with the organisation of Practical classes                        Head of the Institute

Dear Students,

The practical classes (PCs) will be held according to the timetable in the building at Moskovská 2, 1st floor, Room 106.

The teaching will consist of:

• theoretical explanation of diagnostic procedures and methods,
• practical demonstrations of selected diagnostic tests,
• case studies,
• discussion and the opportunity to ask questions related to the topics covered.

1. Assessment at the Beginning of Each Practical Class

At the beginning of each practical class, there will be a short assessment covering the theory relevant to the topic of the class or the methods discussed during previous practical sessions.

The form of assessment will be determined by the instructor.

2. Ongoing Tests Based on the Lectures (Prerequisite for Practical Classes)

• The materials accompanying each online lecture include a short test in MS Forms, which must be completed no later than Sunday at 12:00 midnight in the week preceding the relevant practical class (according to the syllabus).
• After this deadline, the test will no longer be accessible. An uncompleted test will be awarded 0%.
• To obtain course credit, students are required to achieve an average score of at least 70% across all tests during the semester.
• Students who fail to achieve the required average score will be given the opportunity to retake the tests during the final credit week.

3. Credit Tests

The credit tests will be conducted in person.

• Credit Test 1 (during the 4th practical class): covering the topics from Practical Classes 1 to 3.
• Credit Test 2 (during the 9th practical class): covering the topics from Practical Classes 4 to 8.

Both tests consist of 10 questions worth 4 points each (8 multiple-choice questions with 4 answer options and 2 open-ended questions).

The maximum score is 40 points, and a minimum of 70% is required to pass.

The questions relate exclusively to the topics covered during the practical classes, and each instructor prepares their own test.

If a student is unable to sit a credit test on the scheduled date, they must arrange an alternative date with the instructor.

4. Requirements for Obtaining Course Credit

To obtain course credit, students must fulfil all of the following requirements:

1. Attendance at practical classes.
2. Credit Test 1: minimum score of 70%.
3. Credit Test 2: minimum score of 70%.
4. Continuous assessment quizzes based on lectures: a minimum average score of 70% across all quizzes.

5. Attendance

• One authorised absence is permitted.
• Any additional justified absences will be considered on an individual basis by the lecturer.
• A practical class may be made up with another lecturer only with the prior approval (e.g. by email or via MS Teams) of both the student's own lecturer and the lecturer with whom the practical class is to be made up.

• General_Medicine_-_Questions_for_the_Oral_Exam_2025-2026.docx

Obligatory textbooks

Buc M:  Basic and Clinical Immunology. 4th revised edition. Bratislava: Comenius University 2020, 554 p.

Shawkatová I and coauthors: Laboratory Methods in Immunology. Bratislava: Comenius University 2014, 128 p.

Pdf-presentations in MSTeams

Recommended textbooks

Buc M, Javor J: Basic and Clinical Immunology for Dentistry Students. Bratislava: Comenius University 2017, 324 p.

Abbas AK, Pillai S, Lichtman, AH, Henrickson, S: Cellular and Molecular Immunology, 11th ed. Elsevier 2025, 600 p.

Murphy KM, Weaver C, Berg L: Janeway's Immunobiology, 10th ed. W. W. Norton & Company 2022, 960 p.

Stranford S, Owen JA, Punt J, Jones P: Kuby Immunology, 8th ed. Macmillan Learning 2023, 996 p.

The Immunology exam will be held in a dual form: at first a test in Moodle and then an oral exam. Both forms will be on the same day.

The test will have 50 questions with 5 options - for each you need to mark whether it is true or false. The time limit for the test is 50 minutes.

Only those students who pass the test, i.e. achieve at least 185 points out of 250, can participate in the oral part of the exam.

In the oral exam, you will choose 3 questions (one from each category A, B, C). The exact wording of the questions for the oral exam is published on the website of our institute.

In case of a successful test and an unsuccessful oral exam, the test must be repeated on the next date.

We recommend to prepare for the exam from the Pdf presentations available in MSteams and from the listed literature:

1. Buc M:  Basic and Clinical Immunology. 4th revised edition. Bratislava: Comenius University 2020, 554 p.
2. Shawkatová I and coauthors: Laboratory Methods in Immunology. Bratislava: Comenius University 2014, 128 p.

Those interested can also prepare for the exam using other recommended literature published on the website of the Institute of Immunology.

• DAMPs__PAMPs__alarmins_and_autoinflammatory_disorders.pptx
• Autoinflammatory_diseases.docx
• Histamine_intolerance.pdf